The Effect of Ignition Timing on Combustion of Ammonia/Ethanol Mixtures in Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition Engine with a Sub-chamber

Takanobu Okada; Mitsuhisa Ichiyanagi; Emir Yilmaz; Takashi Suzuki; Hikaru Shiraishi; Eric Le Roy Ngwompe Souop; Evan Widjaja; Jason Sutedjo; Christian Dennis Marcelo; Ferdinand Ronaldo Tjiotijono; Gabriel Jeremy Gotama; Willyanto Anggono

doi:10.5614/j.eng.technol.sci.2025.57.6.1

Authors

Takanobu Okada Postgraduate School of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7050-6734
Mitsuhisa Ichiyanagi Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, , Japan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6021-3719
Emir Yilmaz Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, , Japan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3173-1853
Takashi Suzuki Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, , Japan https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3718-248X
Hikaru Shiraishi Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, , Japan
Eric Le Roy Ngwompe Souop Graduate School of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1895-4343
Evan Widjaja Mechanical Engineering Department, Petra Christian University, Surabaya 60236, Indonesia
Jason Sutedjo Mechanical Engineering Department, Petra Christian University, Surabaya 60236, Indonesia
Christian Dennis Marcelo Mechanical Engineering Department, Petra Christian University, Surabaya 60236, Indonesia
Ferdinand Ronaldo Tjiotijono Graduate School of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan
Gabriel Jeremy Gotama Centre for Sustainable Energy Studies, Petra Christian University, Surabaya 60236, , Indonesia
Willyanto Anggono
willy@petra.ac.id
Mechanical Engineering Department, Petra Christian University, Surabaya 60236, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4044-7264

Vol. 57 No. 6 (2025): December 2025 (In Progress)

Articles

Accepted August 1, 2025

Published October 28, 2025

Downloads

PDF

Abstract
How to Cite
Metrics
References
License

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Ammonia (NH3) has emerged as a promising alternative fuel due to its high energy density, ease of transportation, and carbon-free molecular structure. However, its practical application is challenged by slow combustion characteristics and high ignition temperatures. This study investigates the combustion behaviour of ethanol-ammonia mixtures using a high-compression-ratio engine (17.7:1) equipped with a sub-chamber. The engine operated at a constant speed of 1000 rpm. Ammonia energy ratios of 40%, 50%, and 60% were tested across ignition timings of 0°, 2°, 4°, 6°, and 8° crank angle (CA) before top dead center (BTDC). Results indicate that advancing the ignition timing increases in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate while reducing combustion duration. Lower ammonia energy ratios yielded higher thermal efficiency. Conversely, higher ammonia content and advanced ignition timings led to increased NOx emissions.

Okada, T., Ichiyanagi, M., Yilmaz, E., Suzuki, T., Shiraishi, H., Ngwompe Souop, E. L. R., Widjaja, E., Sutedjo, J., Marcelo, C. D., Tjiotijono, F. R., Gotama, G. J., & Anggono, W. (2025). The Effect of Ignition Timing on Combustion of Ammonia/Ethanol Mixtures in Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition Engine with a Sub-chamber . Journal of Engineering and Technological Sciences, 57(6), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.5614/j.eng.technol.sci.2025.57.6.1

Download Citation

Brandon, N., & Smith, J. (2021). The role of hydrogen and ammonia in meeting the net zero challenge. Briefing 4, 1–13. The Royal Society. Retrieved February 15, 2025, from https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/climate-science-solutions-hydrogen-ammonia.pdf

Dong, P., Zhang, Y., & Wang, J. (2024). Future zero carbon ammonia engine: Fundamental study on the effect of jet ignition system characterized by gasoline ignition chamber. Journal of Cleaner Production, 435, 140546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140546

Guo, B., Zhang, H., & Li, M. (2022). Combustion analysis of ammonia fueled high compression ratio SI engine with glow plug and sub-chamber. International Journal of Automotive Engineering, 13(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.20485/JSAEIJAE.13.1_1

Hamedani, E. A., & Abbasian, J. (2024). Hydrogen as an energy source: A review of production technologies and challenges of fuel cell vehicles. Energy Reports, 12, 3778–3794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.09.030

Hayakawa, A., Kobayashi, H., & Kudo, T. (2015). Laminar burning velocity and Markstein length of ammonia/air premixed flames at various pressures. Fuel, 159, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.06.070

Hohenberg, G. F. (1979). Advanced approaches for heat transfer calculations. SAE Technical Papers. https://doi.org/10.4271/790825

Hu, L., Wang, Y., & Zhang, J. (2024). Quantitative analysis of toxicity risks in the operation of ammonia-fueled tugboats. Ocean Engineering, 310, 118759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2024.118759

Hu, Z., Liu, X., & Chen, Y. (2024). Development of a chemical kinetic mechanism for ammonia/macromolecular hydrocarbon combustion. Fuel, 368, 131618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.131618

Ichiyanagi, M., Saito, T., & Tanaka, K. (2024). Combustion analysis of ammonia/gasoline mixtures at various injection timing conditions in a high compression ratio SI engine with sub-chamber. Automotive Experiences, 7(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.31603/ae.10533

Kumar, M., Singh, R., & Gupta, A. (2024). Statistical investigation of combustion and emission characteristics of biofuels according to their physical properties: A way to explore suitable alternative fuels. Fuel, 358, 130242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.130242

Lanni, D., & Rossi, M. (2022). Assessment of the operation of an SI engine fueled with ammonia. Energies, 15(22), 8583. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228583

Li, M., Zhang, H., & Wang, L. (2023). Experimental and kinetic modeling study on auto-ignition properties of ammonia/ethanol blends at intermediate temperatures and high pressures. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 39(1), 511–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2022.07.15

Lounici, M. S., & Bouzid, A. (2011). Investigation on heat transfer evaluation for a more efficient two-zone combustion model in the case of natural gas SI engines. Applied Thermal Engineering, 31(2–3), 1234–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.09.012

Mohammed, A. G., Zhang, Y., & Li, J. (2024). Review on the ammonia-blend as an alternative fuel for micro gas turbine power generation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 82, 428–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.07.396

Moriarty, P., & Honnery, D. (2019). Prospects for hydrogen as a transport fuel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44(31), 16029–16037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.278

Nora, M. D., Maruta, K., & Ghazikhani, M. (2018). Investigation of performance and combustion characteristics of a four-valve supercharged two-stroke DI engine fuelled with gasoline and ethanol. Fuel, 227, 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.078

Qian, F., Zhang, Y., & Liu, J. (2024). Ammonia energy fraction effect on the combustion and reduced NOx emission of ammonia/diesel dual fuel. Environmental Research, 261, 119530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.119530

Sapnken, F. E., & Nguimkeu, A. (2024). The potential of green hydrogen fuel as an alternative in Cameroon’s road transport sector. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 49, 433–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.08.339

Tian, J., Wang, Y., & Li, X. (2024). Enhancing combustion efficiency and reducing nitrogen oxide emissions from ammonia combustion: A comprehensive review. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 183, 514–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.01.020

Uddeen, K., Zhang, Y., & Li, J. (2024). Performance and emission analysis of ammonia-ethanol and ammonia-methane dual-fuel combustion in a spark-ignition engine: An optical study. Fuel, 358, 130296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.130296

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Global greenhouse gas emissions data. Retrieved February 15, 2025, from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data

Wang, S., Zhang, Y., & Li, J. (2024). Effect of excess air ratio and ignition timing on the combustion and emission characteristics of the ammonia-hydrogen Wankel rotary engine. Energy, 302, 131779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.131779

Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhang, R., Wang, M., Zhao, J., Xu, L., Zhou, Y., & He, X. (2022). A review of current advances in ammonia combustion from the fundamentals to applications in internal combustion engines. Energies, 15(21), 7946. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217946

Yilmaz, E., & Demir, A. (2023). Investigation of intake air temperature effect on co-combustion characteristics of NH3/gasoline in naturally aspirated high compression ratio engine with sub-chamber. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 11649. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38883-3

Yang, Q., Liu, Z., Hou, X., He, X., Sjöberg, M., Vuilleumier, D., Liu, C., & Liu, F. (2020). Measurements of laminar flame speeds and flame instability analysis of E30air premixed flames at elevated temperatures and pressures. Fuel, 259, 116223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116223

Zhu, G., Liu, X., & Chen, Y. (2024). Optical diagnostic study of ammonia-kerosene dual-fuel engine combustion process. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 81, 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.07.256